El Nino and La Nina Weather Disturbances, Typhoons (Phil Setting)

Introduction to El Nino Phenomenon

What is ‘El Niño’ ? -It is a climatic phenomenon that increases the temperature of the surface of the Pacific Ocean near the equatorial region. This phenomenon occurs in three years up to seven years long intervals. The full name is ‘El Nino Southern Oscillation’ (ENSO).

During the El Nino season, around 1/5th of the earth’s surface area (around the size of European continent), surface of the Pacific Ocean will start becoming warmer considerably. Trade winds that blow from east to west in the Pacific Ocean will either stop or become weak. The winds that blow in the opposite direction will become strong.

Since the surface of the water has become warm, subjective to the push of the winds, a part of the heat will move towards the shores of Peru through water & air. Hence the normally cool coastline of Peru will become hot. Fishes will disappear from the coastal seas. Therefore the brunt of El Nino are first borne by the fishermen of Peru.

Global weather pattern

Effects of El Nino in Different Countries

This periodic warming phenomenon appears during the Christmas season. Therefore the fishermen of Peru gave the name of ‘El Nino’ which means ‘Infant Jesus’ or ‘small boy’ in Spanish; in the 19th century. Geologists have obtained proofs from the shores of Peru that El Nino phenomenon has occurred around 13000 years back.

Even though it appears in the Pacific Ocean, El Niño has the capacity to change the global climate. This will create worldwide destruction of nature. Those countries that receive rainfall normally will come under the grips of severe drought. Regions that have hot climate will be destined to come under heavy rainfall. Those regions lying west of Pacific Ocean including Philippines & Indonesia will experience more typhoons.

El Nino disturbs the balance of Indian Monsoon. During severe droughts in India that occurred in the last 132 years, disturbing reports regarding the strengthening of El Nino during that period was published on September 8th 2006 in the ‘Science’ magazine. Studies were conducted by a team of people under Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology

La Nina -Little Girl

The strongest of the El Nino’s occurred in the last century. In the 20th century El Nino occurred 23 times. The most destructive El Nino, in its history, happened during the 1997-1998 period. This El Nino resulted in the death of 2100 people worldwide & a loss of 330 million dollars.
Whats is La Nina(Small girl) ‘Phenomenon

There is an antagonistic phenomenon to El Nino; ‘La Nina’. It means ‘small girl’ in Spanish. This name was given in 1985. When El Nino phenomenon comes to an end, sometimes La Nina will occur. In 20thcentury when El Nino appeared 23 times, 15 times La Nina occurred.

During the times when El Nino occurred there will be heavy rains & related problems while during La Nina season there will be severe draught. Otherwise it will be straight opposite. But, one thing is true. In recent times the pattern & strength of El Nino has increased. The effect of global warming also increased in the last century. Some scientists believe that this is not a coincidence.

The increase of the level of green house gases in the atmosphere is the reason for increasing global warming.When the earth’s atmosphere becomes hot due to global warming, the earth will try to readjust on its own. This readjustment is what appears in the form of El Nino according to certain people.

If that is true, then by solving the problem of global warming only we can reduce the effect of El Nino.

El Nino in full effect

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El Nino and La Nina are phenomenal weather disturbances in the World. Usually occur in 4 - 7 years interval. Last year is La Nina in Philippines and lots of rain that cause 6 - 30 feet in some areas by couple of super typhoons (cyclones or hurricanes), not only in the said country but in the other parts of the world also. La Nina cause landslide, too due to deforestation of some mountains and virgin forests in the world. Thousands of people drowned or being buried alive. Heavy rains cause millions of dollars damages, lack of food and water is a big problem and being trapped in roofs, trees, rooftops, etc. But the wonderful thing is that people are helping each other hands. After the La Nina of excessive water tragedies here comes her counterpart El Nino phenomenon also called the dry spell of long months of no rainfalls at all. Drought is the problems of the farmers with the arrivals of billions black bugs in rice-fields. And destructive coconut beetles that ruin the copra industry. Snakes and serpents are starved and died in the midst of the field looking for cool places. Thanks, to some who knew cloud seeding by using silver iodide and dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide). Being industrious is the key in keeping small crops using water pumps or plant the riverside area. In Utah, 19th century history Latter Day Saints or Mormon Pioneers turned this desert to bloom like a rose. Because of their unity, perseverance and faith they did it. They made Salt Lake City famous and progressive. By 2002 they hosted the 2002 Winter Olympic edition. I love planting in my free time despite of El Nino phenomenon. I do water my plants twice a day. Last year is my first time to saw hail storm or rain of ice in a minute then came a thunderstorm. Global Warming cause by Greenhouse Effect. That stared in time of Industrial Revolution that emitted tons of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbon in atmosphere. Plus the natural volcanic eruptions and weapons of war adds in the thinning of the ozone layer. We can help by tree planting and following some tips on how to prevent global warming. During the dry spell on El Nino some houses, building and forest are accidentally on fire. Our body needs more water and take a bath to prevent illness. Have a great day!

Mineral Depletion, Deforestation, Coral Bleaching, Mangrove Ecosystem

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is the clearance of naturally occurring forests by logging and burning.

Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees or derived charcoal are used as, or sold, for fuel or as a commodity, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland.

Disregard or ignorance of intrinsic value, lack of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental law are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation is an ongoing issue that is causing extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of indigenous people.

Among countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

here are many root causes of contemporary deforestation, including corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization.Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.

In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.

The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.[14] Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being.[14] From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited greatly from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities: that the poor shouldn't have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem.

Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Similarly, there is no consensus on whether poverty is important in deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. Claims that population growth drives deforestation have been disputed;[16] one study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.

Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java etc during late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.

CORAL BLEACHING

Coral bleaching is the whitening of corals, due to stress-induced expulsion or death of symbiotic, algae-like protozoa, or due to the loss of pigmentation within the protozoa. The corals that form the structure of the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with unicellular flagellate protozoa, called zooxanthellae, that are photosynthetic and live within their tissues. Zooxanthellae give coral its coloration, with the specific color depending on the particular clade. Under stress, corals may expel their zooxanthellae, which leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached".

Once bleaching begins, it tends to continue even without continuing stress. If the coral colony survives the stress period, zooxanthellae often require weeks to months to return to normal density. The new residents may be of a different species. Some species of zooxanthellae and corals are more resistant to stress than other species.

Causes of coral bleaching

Coral bleaching is a vivid sign of corals responding to stress, which can be induced by any of:

• increased (most commonly), or reduced water temperatures
• increased solar irradiance
• changes in water chemistry (in particular acidification)
• starvation caused by a decline in zooplankton
• increased sedimentation (due to silt runoff)
• pathogen infections
• changes in salinity
• wind
• low tide air exposure^[5] Temperature change

Unbleached (left) and bleached (right) coral

Temperature change is the most common cause of coral bleaching.

Large coral colonies such as Porites are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such as table coral are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change. Corals consistently exposed to low stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching.

Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence. Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching.

Monitoring reef sea surface temperature

The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 degree Celsius or more above the long-term monthly average. This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching event, that corresponded to an el nino. NOAA also uses a satellite with 50k resolution at night, which some argue covers too large a spatial area and does not detect the maximum sea surface temperatures occurring usually around noon.

Changes in ocean chemistry

Increasing ocean acidification likely exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress.

Infectious disease

Bioerosion (coral damage) such as this may be caused by coral bleaching.

It was discovered in 1996 that the bleaching agent of Oculina patagonica in the Mediterranean Sea was infectious bacteria attacking the zooxanthellae. The bacteria were later identified as Vibrio shiloi. V. shiloi is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases the virulence of V. shiloi, which then become able to adhere to abeta galactoside-containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral. V. shiloi then penetrates the coral's epidermis, multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive toxins, which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis.

During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen, and further infection was not observed. The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial species capable of lysing V. shiloi has not been identified.

MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM

Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics – mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S. The saline conditions tolerated by various species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (30 to 40 ppt), to water of over twice the salinity of ocean seawater, where the salt has become concentrated by evaporation (up to 90 ppt).

There are many species of trees and shrubs adapted to saline conditions. Not all are closely related, and the term "mangrove" may be used for all of them, or more narrowly only for the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just for mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora.

Mangroves form a characteristic saline woodland or shrubland habitat, called mangrove swamp, mangrove forest, mangrove or mangal. Mangals are found in depositional coastal environments where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high energy wave action. They occur both in estuaries and along open coastlines. Mangroves dominate three quarters of tropical coastlines.

Pollution (Air, Water, and Terrestrial - Causes, effects)

Effects of Water Pollution in Aquatic Ecosystems

“In aquatic ecosystems, effects [from air pollution] of acidity, nitrogen, and mercury...are well documented,” states the Cary Institute. The effect on lakes is largely acidification which contributes to “eutrophication of estuaries [excess of organic and mineral nutrients causing algae and cyanobacteria to grow quickly depleting oxygen supply for plants and living organisms in water].”
Land Pollution Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems

“In terrestrial ecosystems...effects of air pollution on bio-accumulation [accumulation of toxic chemicals in tissues of terrestrial living organisms] cycling is well documented, “ states the Cary Institute.

Land Pollution from damaging nitrogen deposits on grassland, alpine, bogs, and forest areas is “well understood.” Damaging forest mycorrhizae (fungus on plant roots) is also “well documented.” Soil acidification, caused from nitrogen deposits, is damaging to forest areas.

Ozone causes reduced photosynthesis (plants using light as an energy source) over the long term in “many” plants, states the article. Acidification and depletion of oxygen supply (eutrophication) “...can propagate throughout the food webs...” which in turn affects organisms not directly subjected to airborne pollution.

Air Pollution Causes and Effects




Humans probably first experienced harm from air pollution when they built fires in poorly ventilated caves. Since then we have gone on to pollute more of the earth's surface. Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been local and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants. The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the population, are factors contributing toward the growing air pollution problem. At this time it is urgent that we find methods to clean up the air.

The primary air pollutants found in most urban areas are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid). These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's atmosphere in concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health problems. Serious health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated, such as when massive injections of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are emitted by a large volcanic eruption.
Air Pollution in the Home

You cannot escape air pollution, not even in your own home. "In 1985 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that toxic chemicals found in the air of almost every American home are three times more likely to cause some type of cancer than outdoor air pollutants". (Miller 488) The health problems in these buildings are called "sick building syndrome". "An estimated one-fifth to one-third of all U.S. buildings are now considered "sick". (Miller 489) The EPA has found that the air in some office buildings is 100 times more polluted than the air outside. Poor ventilation causes about half of the indoor air pollution problems. The rest come from specific sources such as copying machines, electrical and telephone cables, mold and microbe-harboring air conditioning systems and ducts, cleaning fluids, cigarette smoke, carpet, latex caulk and paint, vinyl molding, linoleum tile, and building materials and furniture that emit air pollutants such as formaldehyde. A major indoor air pollutant is radon-222, a colorless, odorless, tasteless, naturally occurring radioactive gas produced by the radioactive decay of uranium-238. "According to studies by the EPA and the National Research Council, exposure to radon is second only to smoking as a cause of lung cancer". (Miller 489) Radon enters through pores and cracks in concrete when indoor air pressure is less than the pressure of gasses in the soil. Indoor air will be healthier than outdoor air if you use an energy recovery ventilator to provide a consistent supply of fresh filtered air and then seal air leaks in the shell of your home .
Sources of Pollutants

To enlarge an image, click on it.

The two main sources of pollutants in urban areas are transportation (predominantly automobiles) and fuel combustion in stationary sources, including residential, commercial, and industrial heating and cooling and coal-burning power plants. Motor vehicles produce high levels of carbon monoxides (CO) and a major source of hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Whereas, fuel combustion in stationary sources is the dominant source of sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major pollutants in the atmosphere. Major sources of CO2 are fossil fuels burning and deforestation. "The concentrations of CO2 in the air around 1860 before the effects of industrialization were felt, is assumed to have been about 290 parts per million (ppm). In the hundred years and more since then, the concentration has increased by about 30 to 35 ppm that is by 10 percent". (Breuer 67) Industrial countries account for 65% of CO2 emissions with the United States and Soviet Union responsible for 50%. Less developed countries (LDCs), with 80% of the world's people, are responsible for 35% of CO2 emissions but may contribute 50% by 2020. "Carbon dioxide emissions are increasing by 4% a year". (Miller 450)

In 1975, 18 thousand million tons of carbon dioxide (equivalent to 5 thousand million tons of carbon) were released into the atmosphere, but the atmosphere showed an increase of only 8 billion tons (equivalent to 2.2 billion tons of carbon". (Breuer 70) The ocean waters contain about sixty times more CO2 than the atmosphere. If the equilibrium is disturbed by externally increasing the concentration of CO2 in the air, then the oceans would absorb more and more CO2. If the oceans can no longer keep pace, then more CO2 will remain into the atmosphere. As water warms, its ability to absorb CO2 is reduced.

CO2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but partially restricts infrared radiation going back from the earth into space. This produces the so-called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the Earth during the night. Increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reinforces this effect and is expected to result in a warming of the Earth's surface. Currently carbon dioxide is responsible for 57% of the global warming trend. Nitrogen oxides contribute most of the atmospheric contaminants.
N0X - nitric oxide (N0) and nitrogen dioxide (N02)

* Natural component of the Earth's atmosphere.
* Important in the formation of both acid precipitation and photochemical smog (ozone), and causes nitrogen loading.
* Comes from the burning of biomass and fossil fuels.
* 30 to 50 million tons per year from human activities, and natural 10 to 20 million tons per year.
* Average residence time in the atmosphere is days.
* Has a role in reducing stratospheric ozone.

N20 - nitrous oxide

* Natural component of the Earth's atmosphere.
* Important in the greenhouse effect and causes nitrogen loading.
* Human inputs 6 million tons per year, and 19 million tons per year by nature.
* Residence time in the atmosphere about 170 years.
* 1700 (285 parts per billion), 1990 (310 parts per billion), 2030 (340 parts per billion).
* Comes from nitrogen based fertilizers, deforestation, and biomass burning.

Sulfur and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Sulfur dioxide is produced by combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and fuel oils. Also, in the process of producing sulfuric acid and in metallurgical process involving ores that contain sulfur. Sulfur oxides can injure man, plants and materials. At sufficiently high concentrations, sulfur dioxide irritates the upper respiratory tract of human beings because potential effect of sulfur dioxide is to make breathing more difficult by causing the finer air tubes of the lung to constrict. "Power plants and factories emit 90% to 95% of the sulfur dioxide and 57% of the nitrogen oxides in the United States. Almost 60% of the SO2 emissions are released by tall smoke stakes, enabling the emissions to travel long distances". (Miller 494) As emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide from stationary sources are transported long distances by winds, they form secondary pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets containing solutions of sulfuric acid, sulfate, and nitrate salts. These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in wet form as rain or snow and in dry form as a gases fog, dew, or solid particles. This is known as acid deposition or acid rain.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

CFCs are lowering the average concentration of ozone in the stratosphere. "Since 1978 the use of CFCs in aerosol cans has been banned in the United States, Canada, and most Scandinavian countries. Aerosols are still the largest use, accounting for 25% of global CFC use". (Miller 448) Spray cans, discarded or leaking refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, and the burning plastic foam products release the CFCs into the atmosphere. Depending on the type, CFCs stay in the atmosphere from 22 to 111 years. Chlorofluorocarbons move up to the stratosphere gradually over several decades. Under high energy ultra violet (UV) radiation, they break down and release chlorine atoms, which speed up the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen gas (O2).

Chlorofluorocarbons, also known as Freons, are greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Photochemical air pollution is commonly referred to as "smog". Smog, a contraction of the words smoke and fog, has been caused throughout recorded history by water condensing on smoke particles, usually from burning coal. With the introduction of petroleum to replace coal economies in countries, photochemical smog has become predominant in many cities, which are located in sunny, warm, and dry climates with many motor vehicles. The worst episodes of photochemical smog tend to occur in summer.
Smog

To enlarge the image, click on it.

Photochemical smog is also appearing in regions of the tropics and subtropics where savanna grasses are periodically burned. Smog's unpleasant properties result from the irradiation by sunlight of hydrocarbons caused primarily by unburned gasoline emitted by automobiles and other combustion sources. The products of photochemical reactions includes organic particles, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, peroxyacetyl nitrate, organic acids, and other oxidants. Ozone is a gas created by nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide when exposed to sunlight. Ozone causes eye irritation, impaired lung function, and damage to trees and crops. Another form of smog is called industrial smog.

This smog is created by burning coal and heavy oil that contain sulfur impurities in power plants, industrial plants, etc... The smog consists mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide and fog. Suspended droplets of sulfuric acid are formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and a variety of suspended solid particles. This smog is common during the winter in cities such as London, Chicago, Pittsburgh. When these cities burned large amounts of coal and heavy oil without control of the output, large-scale problems were witnessed. In 1952 London, England, 4,000 people died as a result of this form of fog. Today coal and heavy oil are burned only in large boilers and with reasonably good control or tall smokestacks so that industrial smog is less of a problem. However, some countries such as China, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and some other eastern European countries, still burn large quantities of coal without using adequate controls.
Pollution Damage to Plants

With the destruction and burning of the rain forests more and more CO2 is being released into the atmosphere. Trees play an important role in producing oxygen from carbon dioxide. "A 115 year old Beech tree exposes about 200,000 leaves with a total surface to 1200 square meters. During the course of one sunny day such a tree inhales 9,400 liters of carbon dioxide to produce 12 kilograms of carbohydrate, thus liberating 9,400 liters of oxygen. Through this mechanism about 45,000 liters of air are regenerated which is sufficient for the respiration of 2 to 3 people". (Breuer 1) This process is called photosynthesis which all plants go though but some yield more and some less oxygen. As long as no more wood is burnt than is reproduced by the forests, no change in atmospheric CO2 concentration will result.

Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacl nitrates (PANs), cause direct damage to leaves of crop plants and trees when they enter leaf pores (stomates). Chronic exposure of leaves and needles to air pollutants can also break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. "In the midwestern United States crop losses of wheat, corn, soybeans, and peanuts from damage by ozone and acid deposition amount to about $5 billion a year". (Miller 498)
Reducing Pollution

You can help to reduce global air pollution and climate change by driving a car that gets at least 35 miles a gallon, walking, bicycling, and using mass transit when possible. Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs, make your home more energy efficient, and buy only energy efficient appliances. Recycle newspapers, aluminum, and other materials. Plant trees and avoid purchasing products such as Styrofoam that contain CFCs. Support much stricter clean air laws and enforcement of international treaties to reduce ozone depletion and slow global warming.

Earth is everybody's home and nobody likes living in a dirty home. Together, we can make the earth a cleaner, healthier and more pleasant place to live.

Water Pollution

Causes and Effects of Water Pollution
Public Service Announcement for Pollution

What are the causes of water pollution? This question has no simple answer. Water pollution can be defined as anything humans do to cause harmful effects to our bodies of water. This can include pollution of rivers, lakes, oceans, and ground water pollution. The causes of pollution in the water are virtually endless. Manufacturing plants are major causes of water pollution, using bodies of fresh water to carry away waste that can contain phosphates, nitrates, lead, mercury and other harmful and toxic substances. Even the hot water that factories often discharge can raise the temperature and change the chemistry of bodies of water, causing what’s called “thermal pollution.” Construction byproducts are another one of the major causes of water pollution: cement, metals, plastics and lubricants are the usual culprits. In addition to large industry, individual consumers round up the list of causes of water pollution. We pour our waste chemicals and detergents into our rivers. Small boats and large ships alike are responsible for spilling oil into our seas and oceans, and dropping untreated sewage into the water. These pollutants are carried by waves to even the most remote parts of our oceans.

It’s not just large bodies of water that we need to worry about. The entire world, particularly places close to big cities, faces the problem of ground water pollution. Ground water pollution occurs when harmful elements, such as oil, debris, chemicals and other contaminants get washed up by rainwater and then seep back into underground water supplies called ground water. Ground water is often harvested through the use of wells and aquifers and makes its way back into our drinking supply.

We now know some of the common causes of water pollution. But what are the effects of water pollution? The effects of pollution in the water are myriad. In rivers, oceans and seas, the water pollution can be lethal, killing the fish and plant life. This in turn can kill the birds and other animals that eat this contaminated food supply. The effects of water pollution have also been considered the leading cause of human deaths worldwide. Almost every type of contamination found in water has a detrimental effect on humans. Blood diseases, heart disease and nervous system disorders are commonly linked to the effects of water pollution. Many of the toxins found in polluted water are carcinogenic, which means they can cause cancer. Some substances can even effect generations to come by changing the body’s chromosomal makeup. Less severe effects of water pollution can include diarrhea, skin lesions, and vomiting.

Finding ways to implement water pollution solutions are the only hope to stem the effects of water pollution on our natural resources, and the people and animals that need these resources to survive. In the United States, most water pollution control comes from the governmental level. The growing need to come up with real water pollution solutions lead to the enactment of the Clean Water Act in 1972, which has been modified several times to reflect the ever changing nature of water pollution and its effects on our environment. The Clean Water Act puts limitations on the types and amounts of material that can be discharged into our bodies of water, and also sets quotas on the amounts of pollutants that can be in water before it becomes unsafe for use by humans and wildlife. On a smaller scale, the general public can aid in water pollution control by simply getting educated on ways to avoid polluting. This can include the proper disposal of household chemicals so they don’t make their way untreated into bodies of water or water supplies. It can even be as simple as making sure your car isn’t leaking fluids that can get mixed in with runoff when it rains and cause ground water pollution.

Biodiversity Loss (Endangered, Threatened and Extinct Species)

Impact on biodiversity and endangered species

In order to conserve the biodiversity of the planet, one must take into consideration the reasons why so many species are becoming endangered. “Habitat loss is the most widespread cause of species endangerment in the U.S., affecting 85% of imperiled species” (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 416). When an animal’s ecosystem is not maintained, they lose their home and are either forced to adapt to new surroundings or perish. Pollution is another factor that causes many species to become endangered, especially a large proportion of aquatic life. Also, over-exploitation, disease (Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 416), and climate change (Kotiaho et al., 2005, p. 1963) have led to the endangerment of several species.

However, the most important factor leading to the endangerment of the majority of wildlife in the world is the human impact on the species and their environment. “As human use of resources, energy, and space intensified over the past few centuries, the diversity of life has been substantially diminished in most parts of the world” (Ishwaran & Erdelen, 2006, p.179). Basically, as the human impact on the environment increases, the diversity of life decreases. Humans are constantly using the resources and space of other species for themselves, negatively impacting the survival rate of many creatures.

Humans also set standards for which species they think should be saved and which species they find unimportant or undesirable. For example, the coqui frog, an invasive species in Hawaii, is so common there that its “nocturnal singing” reduces the value of homes and prevents hotels from using rooms near forests. Hawaiians have proposed eliminating the frog, and several wildlife managers want to release a pathogen to kill the frogs (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). The frog has decreased the value of homes and caused a loss of business for several hotels, so the Hawaiians decided it was acceptable to get rid of the group of coqui frog living near them.

Another example where the human impact affected the welfare of a species sex in the instance of non-native mute swans establishing themselves at Arrowhead Lake in Vermont. When the population of swans grew to eight birds, the Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department decided to take action. Two swans were eventually killed, angering animal welfare organizations and people living near the lake (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333). The case of the Arrowhead Lake swans demonstrates what one considers the natural environment based on human assumptions. Simply because the swans were not normally living there does not mean it is not part of their natural habitat, and there is certainly no reason for them to be destroyed because of human dissatisfaction.

Yet another example of the human impact in the lives of endangered species is that of the Preble’s meadow jumping mouse. Research has shown that the mouse is not taxonomically different from the Bear Lodge meadow jumping mouse and the US Fish and Wildlife Service has proposed removing the Preble’s mouse from the endangered species list based on this information (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 333).

A final example of the human impact on existing species is the issue of toe clipping in ecological research. While ecologists are doing research on different species to advance their knowledge of methods of conservation, they must take into consideration the impact they have on the wildlife they are studying. Toe clipping “has been reported to result in a number of adverse effects on the animals, including inflammation and infection of the feet and limbs” (Minteer & Collins, 2005, p. 334). This example demonstrates how humans must take into consideration the well-being of the animal even before they perform research to help conserve the species. The human impact on species and their environments has many negative effects. It is important for humans to help maintain all species in the world and not deter their development.



The more general term used by the IUCN for species at risk of extinction is threatened species, which also includes the less-at-risk category of vulnerable species together with endangered and critically endangered. IUCN categories include:

* Extinct: the last remaining member of the species has died, or is presumed beyond reasonable doubt to have died. Examples: Thylacine, Dodo, Passenger Pigeon, Tyrannosaurus, Caribbean Monk Seal, Dimetrodon, Aurochs
* Extinct in the wild: captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples: Alagoas Curassow, Guinea pig
* Critically endangered: faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future. Examples: Mountain Gorilla, Arakan Forest Turtle, Ethiopian wolf, Darwin's Fox, Javan Rhino, Brazilian Merganser, Gharial, Vaquita
* Endangered: faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Dhole, Blue Whale, Bonobo, Giant Panda, Snow Leopard, African Wild Dog, Tiger, Indian Rhinoceros, three species of Albatrosses, Crowned Solitary Eagle, Markhor, Orangutan, Grevy's zebra
* Vulnerable: faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: Cheetah, Gaur, Lion, Sloth Bear, Wolverine, Manatee, Polar Bear, African Golden Cat, Komodo dragon
* Conservation dependent: The following animal is not severely threatened, but the animal must depend on conservation programs. Examples: Spotted Hyena, Blanford's fox, Leopard Shark, Black Caiman, Killer whale
* Near threatened: may be considered threatened in the near future. Examples: Blue-billed Duck, Solitary Eagle, Small-clawed Otter , Maned Wolf, Tiger Shark, Okapi
* Least concern: no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Examples: Nootka Cypress, Wood Pigeon, Harp Seal, White-tailed Mongoose, House Mouse

Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or for the entire Earth. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems. The biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, which is the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.[1][2] 2010 has been declared as the International Year of Biodiversity.

Renewable-vs-non renewable resources (types and uses)

Uses:

All these resources are being mainly used to generate electricity. Oil is also used for transport and the production of plastics.

Renewable Resources

A renewable resource is something that is being continually replaced faster than we use it up.

• Solar energy is considered a renewable source of energy because no matter how it was done it still was done by a complet ediot
• Wind Power
• Water Power (Hydro-electricity from dammed rivers, tidal streams and ocean waves)
  
• Thermal Power from the earth (Geothermal: Using the earth's heat to generate electricity)
  
• Thermal Power from the ocean
• Biomass, the burning of plant material, is a renewable resource. Even though the burning puts carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, it also prevents a much greater amount of methane being released by the decomposing vegetation, so it is rated as positive.
  

Non-Renewable Resources

A non-renewable resource is something that is not being replaced as we consume it.

• Oil is a good example of a non-renewable resource. It is used to make gasoline and other fuels, as well as plastics, such as grocery bags. We are using billions of gallons of oil every year, but it takes millions of years to be replace. We are using up oil much much faster than it is being produced. Once we use up oil from the earth, it's gone. We can't wait millions of years for some more.
• Coal is non-renewable.
• Peat is non-renewable.
  
• Uranium is non-renewable.
  
• Trees are often considered a renewable resource, but that is only true in certain circumstances. If a forest is well managed, than the trees can grow back faster than we cut them down. However, in many parts of the world (including in the US), forests are being cut much much faster than they regrow, and this is therefore not considered renewable.

A:

Most of the time the two terms are referring to sources of energy:
Renewable sources are sources of energy that can be reused or that will continue regardless of you using them: power from the Sun, power from waves, power from wind.
Nonrenewable sources are sources of energy that have a limited supply and will run out, and not be able to be used in the future: Oil, Coal, Northsea gas.

A:

Well, renewable energy sources are wind and hydro. They will never run out. Nonrenewable energy sources are coal. Nonrenewable energy sources are fossil fuels. The similarities are that most of them have a relation with the sun. A nonrenewable energy source and a renewable energy source are similar in the way some of them are used to transform energy (you cannot create energy, it can only be transformed from one energy to another.) The similarities are few but there are many differences, most of the positives are on the renewable energy's side.

A:

Renewable resources are structures that will never be in shortage but non-renewable resources are structures that can be in shortage and takes years to recover

A:

CHARA(:
Uranium is nonrenewable.

A:

Non-Renewable

When you use petrol, gas, coal... basically anything you burn to produce heat and then turn this energy into electricity of mechanical energy (a car engine) you are using a raw material that is not going to be replaced. In fact petrol, gas and coal takes million of years to be naturally produced.

When you are burning wood (from trees), the tree grows again... eventually if you let it do so. This energy can be "kind of renewable" as long as another tree grows as fast in order to replace the one you cut.

CHARA

Minerals like, iron ore and gold are nonrenewable, as are oil, coal, and other fossil fuels.

Population Growth (Phil. Setting/Current data of Phil. population/Family Planning/Unemployment/Rapid Urbanization)

Population Growth (Phil. Setting/Current data of Phil. population/Family Planning/Unemployment/Rapid Urbanization)

The Philippines (Filipino: Pilipinas [pɪlɪˈpinɐs]) officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. Taiwan lies north across the Luzon Strait. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest separates it from the island of Borneo and to the south the Celebes Sea from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The capital city is Manila.

With an estimated population of about 92 million people, the Philippines is the world's 12th most populous country. It is estimated that there are an additional 11 million overseas Filipinos worldwide. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. Its tropical climate sustains one of the richest areas in terms of biodiversity in the world.

Republic of the Philippines
Republika ng Pilipinas



Flag Coat of arms

Motto: Maka-Diyos, Maka-Tao, Makakalikasan, at Makabansa[1]
("For God, People, Nature, and Country")

Anthem: Lupang Hinirang
("Chosen Land")


Location of Philippines (green)

in ASEAN (dark grey) — [Legend]

Capital Manila
14°35′N 121°0′E / 14.583°N 121°E / 14.583; 121

Largest city Quezon City

Official language(s) Filipino (based on Tagalog) , English





Recognised regional languages Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilokano, Kapampangan, Kinaray-a, Maguindanao, Maranao, Pangasinan, Tagalog, Tausug, Waray-Waray[2]

Optional languages Spanish and Arabic[3]

National language Filipino

Demonym Filipino or Pinoy

Government Unitary presidential constitutional republic

- President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo

- Vice President Noli de Castro

- Senate President Juan Ponce Enrile

- House Speaker Prospero C. Nograles

- Supreme Court Chief Justice Reynato Puno

Independence from Spain1
from United States

- Established April 27, 1565

- Declared June 12, 1898

- Self-government March 24, 1934

- Recognized July 4, 1946

- Current constitution February 2, 1987

Area

- Land 299,764 km2 [4](72nd)
115,831 sq mi

- Water (%) 0.61%[5]

Population

- 2009 estimate 91,983,000[6] (12th)

- 2007 census 88,574,614[7]

- Density 306.6/km2 (44th)
794.1/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate

- Total $317.964 billion[8] (36th)

- Per capita $3,515[8] (123rd)

GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate

- Total $166.909 billion[8] (47th)

- Per capita $1,845[8] (121st)

Gini (2006) 45.8[5] (medium)

HDI (2007) ▲ 0.751[9] (medium) (105th)

Currency Peso (Filipino: piso PhilippinePeso.svg) (PHP)

Time zone PST (UTC+8)

- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+8)

Drives on the right[10]

Internet TLD .ph

Calling code +63


Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of the Philippines
Provinces and regions of the Philippines.

The Philippines is divided into three island groups: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. These are divided into 17 regions, 80 provinces, 120 cities, 1,511 municipalities, and 42,008 barangays.[67] In addition, Section 2 of Republic Act No. 5446 asserts that the country has acquired islands from Sabah (formerly North Borneo).[68]
Region Designation Regional center
Ilocos Region Region I San Fernando, La Union
Cagayan Valley Region II Tuguegarao, Cagayan
Central Luzon Region III San Fernando, Pampanga
CALABARZON Region IV-A Calamba City, Laguna
MIMAROPA Region IV-B Calapan, Oriental Mindoro
Bicol Region Region V Legazpi, Albay
Western Visayas Region VI Iloilo City
Central Visayas Region VII Cebu City
Eastern Visayas Region VIII Tacloban
Zamboanga Peninsula Region IX Pagadian, Zamboanga del Sur
Northern Mindanao Region X Cagayan de Oro City
Davao Region Region XI Davao City
SOCCSKSARGEN Region XII Koronadal, South Cotabato
Caraga Region XIII Butuan
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ARMM Cotabato City
Cordillera Administrative Region CAR Baguio
National Capital Region NCR Manila
Geography
Main article: Geography of the Philippines

The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,107 islands[2] with a total land area of approximately 300,000 square kilometers (116,000 square miles). Its 36,289 kilometers of coastline makes it the country with the 5th longest coastline in the world.[2][69] It is located between 116° 40', and 126° 34' E. longitude and 4° 40' and 21° 10' N. latitude and borders the Philippine Sea on the east, the South China Sea on the west, and the Celebes Sea on the south. The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometres southwest and Taiwan is located directly to the north. The Moluccas and Sulawesi are located to the south-southwest and Palau is located to the east of the islands.[2]

Most of the mountainous islands are covered in tropical rainforest and volcanic in origin. The highest mountain is Mount Apo. It measures up to 2,954 metres (9,692 ft) above sea level and is located on the island of Mindanao. The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon. Manila Bay, upon the shore of which the capital city of Manila lies, is connected to Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the Philippines, by the Pasig River. Subic Bay, the Davao Gulf, and the Moro Gulf are other important bays. The San Juanico Strait separates the islands of Samar and Leyte but it is traversed by the San Juanico Bridge.[70]
Ancient Filipinos utilized terrace farming to grow crops in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines.

Situated on the northwestern fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity. The Benham Plateau to the east in the Philippine Sea is an undersea region active in tectonic subduction.[71] Around 20 earthquakes are registered daily, though most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquake was the 1990 Luzon earthquake.[72] There are many active volcanoes such as the Mayon Volcano, Mount Pinatubo, and Taal Volcano. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 produced the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.[73] Not all notable geographic features are so violent or destructive. A more serene legacy of the geological disturbances is the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River.

Due to the volcanic nature of the islands, mineral deposits are abundant. The country is estimated to have the second-largest gold deposits after South Africa and one of the largest copper deposits in the world.[74] It is also rich in nickel, chromite, and zinc.[74] Despite this, poor management, high population density, and environmental consciousness have resulted in these mineral resources remaining largely untapped. Geothermal energy, however, is another product of volcanic activity that the country has harnessed more successfully. The Philippines is the world's second-biggest geothermal producer behind the United States, with 18% of the country's electricity needs being met by geothermal power.[75]


Economy
Main article: Economy of the Philippines
The Makati City skyline

The national economy of the Philippines is the 47th largest in the world, with an estimated 2008 gross domestic product (GDP nominal) of over US$166.9 billion (nominal).[95] Primary exports include semiconductors and electronic products, transport equipment, garments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil, and fruits.[5] Major trading partners include China, Japan, the United States, Singapore, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Thailand, and Malaysia.[5] Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso (PHP).

A newly industrialized country, the Philippine economy has been transitioning from one based on agriculture to one based more on services and manufacturing. Of the country's total labor force of around 38.1 million,[5] the agricultural sector employs close to 32% but contributes to only about 13.8% of GDP. The industrial sector employs around 13.7% of the workforce and accounts for 30% of GDP. Meanwhile the 46.5% of workers involved in the services sector are responsible for 56.2% of GDP.[96][97]

The unemployment rate as of July 2009 stands at around 7.6% and due to the global economic slowdown inflation as of September 2009 reads 0.70%.[97] Foreign currency reserves as of October 2009 are US$36.13 billion.[98] In 2004, public debt as a percentage of GDP was estimated to be 74.2%; in 2008, 56.9%.[5] Gross external debt has risen to US$66.27 billion.[5] The country is a net importer.[97]
The Philippine Stock Exchange with the statue of martyred Filipino opposition leader during the Marcos dictatorship, Benigno S. Aquino, Jr.

In the 1960s, the country was regarded as the second wealthiest in Asia, next to Japan.[54][99][100] However, the leadership of Ferdinand Marcos proved disastrous by gradually transforming the market economy into one with aspects of a centrally planned economy.[54][100] The country suffered from slow economic growth and bouts of economic recession. Only in the 1990s with a program of economic liberalization did the economy begin to recover.[54][100]

The Asian Financial Crisis affected the economy, resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market. The extent to which it was affected initially, however, was not as severe as that of some of its Asian neighbors. This was largely due to the fiscal conservatism of the government, partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund, in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth.[47] There have been signs of progress since. In 2004, the economy experienced 6% GDP growth and 7.3% in 2007, its fastest pace of growth in three decades.[5][101] Yet average annual GDP growth per capita for the period 1966-2007 still stands at 1.45% in comparison to an average of 5.96% for the East Asia and the Pacific region as a whole and the daily income for 45% of the population of the Philippines remains less than US$2.[9][102]

Other incongruities and challenges exist. The economy is heavily reliant on remittances which surpass foreign direct investment as a source of foreign currency. Regional development is uneven with Luzon—Metro Manila in particular—gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions,[103] although the government has taken steps to distribute economic growth by promoting investment in other areas of the country. Despite constraints, service industries such as tourism and business process outsourcing have been identified as areas with some of the best opportunities for growth for the country.[97][104] Goldman Sachs includes the country in its list of the "Next Eleven" economies.[105] However, China and India have emerged as major economic competitors.[106]

The Philippines is a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asian Development Bank which is headquartered in Mandaluyong City, the Colombo Plan, and the G-77 among other groups and institutions.[5]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of the Philippines, Filipino people, and Overseas Filipino
Population growth of the Philippines.

The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5,567,685.[107] By 2009, the Philippines has become the world's 12th most populous nation, with a population of over 92 million.[8][108] It is estimated that half of the population resides on the island of Luzon. Manila, the capital city, is the eleventh most populous metropolitan area in the world. The population of the Greater Manila Area is around 20 million.[109][110] Life expectancy is 71.09 years, with 74.15 years for females and 68.17 years for males.[111] Population growth rate between 1995 to 2000 was 3.21% but has decreased to an estimated 1.95% for the 2005 to 2010 period.[7]
Map of the dominant ethnicities of the Philippines by province.
There are about 11 million Filipinos outside the Philippines.[112] Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965,[113] the number of people in the United States having Filipino ancestry had grown substantially to 3.1 million according to the 2007 estimates by the United States Census Bureau.[114] According to the US Census Bureau, immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that sought family reunification.[115] Some 2 million Filipinos work in the Middle East, with nearly a million in Saudi Arabia alone.


Philippines Family Planning: Its Economic and Psychosocial Influences on the Lives of Women in Western Visayas

The Philippine family planning program began in the 1970s and reflected a concern with rapid population growth and inadequate maternal and child health (MCH). Over the past two decades, the program has had varying degrees of political support and, consequently, somewhat erratic implementation. In the past six years, there has been an attempt to revive training of MCH and family planning workers and increase the choice of contraceptive methods. For example, injectables have been introduced.

Among the benefits of family planning often cited by contraceptive users are improvements in women's health and the family's economic status. In research conducted in Western Visayas, the Philippines, women said family planning allowed them more freedom to participate in the work force and more time to participate in community activities. Women who used family planning were generally more satisfied with their lives and more likely to share in household decision-making. Domestic violence was a concern for many women in this region of the Philippines.

Research Findings

Researchers interviewed 1,100 married women of reproductive age, plus 50 key informants. Investigators also conducted nine pre-survey and 27 post-survey focus group discussions with women, men, community leaders, members of women's groups, and family planning service providers. Both rural and urban residents took part in the study.

* More than half of the women interviewed currently used contraception or had used family planning at some point. Thirty seven percent are current users. The most popular methods are the pill, tubal ligation, and injections while the most unpopular are male-oriented methods -- condoms and vasectomy. The most common reason for choice of family planning methods was effectiveness, while the most often cited side effect was dizziness. In focus group discussions, men and women expressed fears about contraceptive side effects and gave this concern as a reason for not using family planning.


* Family planning users were more likely to engage in paid work than were non-users. Family planning use provided increased economic opportunities for women, including opportunities to earn a living and to become more efficient workers.


* Women who used family planning were more likely to participate in community activities, such as Parent-Teacher Associations, religious organizations and beautification projects. Women found community activities relaxing, and said these activities allowed them to socialize and interact with their peers. Women reported that social participation gave them satisfaction and increased their sense of self-worth.


* More family planning users than nonusers shared decision-making with their husbands in four areas: the woman's work outside the home; the woman's travel outside the community; use of family planning; and plans for future births. Nonusers were more likely to report that their husbands made decisions independently in these four areas.


* More than one-third of the women reported they had been victims of physical abuse, psychological abuse, or both. Most domestic violence happened when the perpetrator (usually the husband) had been drinking. Among the perceived causes of violence were jealousy, quarrels due to suspected infidelity, and arguments over financial and other family matters. The most common reported acts of physical abuse were beating, boxing, slapping, and kicking. Contraceptive use did not reduce women's risks of violence, nor did work status. .

Solid Waste Management (RA 9003), Biodegradable-vs-non biodegradable, and other hazardous wastes

1
H. No. 10651
S. No. 1595
Republic of the Philippines
Congress of the Philippines
Metro Manila
Eleventh Congress
Third Regular Session

Begun and held in Metro Manila, on Monday, the twenty-fourth day of July, two
thousand.
[ REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003 ]
AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
PROGRAM, CREATING THE NECESSARY INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND
INCENTIVES, DECLARING CERTAIN ACTS PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING
PENALTIES, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in
Congress assembled:

CHAPTER I
BASIC POLICIES
Article 1
General Provisions

Section 1. Short Title. -- This Act shall be known as the “Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of 2000”.
Section 2. Declaration of Policies. -- It is hereby declared the policy of the State to
adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program
which shall:
(a) Ensure the protection of public health and environment;
(b) Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of
valuable resources and encourage resources conservation and recovery;
(c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction
through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including
composing, recycling, re-use, recovery, green charcoal process, and others,
before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentallysound
solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically
sustainable development principles;
2
(d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and
disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best
environmental practices in ecological waste management excluding
incineration;
(e) Promote national research and development programs for improved solid
waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective
institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste
reduction, collection, separation and recovery.
(f) Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;
(g) Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management
with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the
national government, other local government units, non-government
organizations, and the private sector;
(h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through
the application of market-based instruments;
(i) Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of
national and local integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste
management programs; and
(j) Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and
resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of
formal and non-formal education in order to promote environmental
awareness and action among the citizenry.

The term biodegradable is used to describe materials that decompose through the actions of bacteria, fungi, and other living organisms. Temperature and sunlight may also play roles in the decomposition of biodegradable plastics and other substances. If such materials are not biodegradable, they remain in the environment for a long time, and, if these same substances are toxic, they may pollute the soil and water. Some nonbiodegradable pollutants may be capable of causing harm to organisms in the environment.

Common, everyday substances that are biodegradable include food refuse, tree leaves, and grass clippings. Many communities now encourage people to compost these materials and use them as humus (an organic-rich material in soil) for gardening. Because plant materials are biodegradable, composting is one way to reduce amounts of solid waste that towns and cities otherwise have to dispose in landfills.

In many cases, scientists can come up with biodegradable alternatives to non-biodegradable products. For example, when household detergents were developed and came into wide use, foam began to clog streams and sewage treatment plants. The foam was caused by the presence of a complex phosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate, an ingredient in the detergent that reacted with, and removed dirt from, the surfaces of clothes. These complex phosphates, collectively called surfactants for their actions on material surfaces, were not biodegradable, and appeared to be harming plants and fish in streams. Detergent manufacturers responded to the problem by replacing phosphates with enzymes like protease and amylase, which are biodegradable.

Non-biodegradable plastics are a particular problem, because they take up so much room in landfills or require special handling at waste incinerators. Most plastics are petroleum-based, meaning they are made from oil and other petroleum products. Until recently, plastics have been non-biodegradable. Today, however, various techniques for producing biodegradable plastics are being explored, developed, and marketed. In some cases, organic compounds like sugar, corn starch, silk, and bamboo are being incorporated into the plastic production process. This allows large pieces of plastic to break down into smaller units, but on a molecular level, many of these plastics remain nonbiodegradable. Other researchers have come up with non-petroleum based plastics, using bioengineered organisms, such as bacteria, to produce plastic. In some cases, enzymes produced by the same organism can be used to break down the biologically produced plastic. Currently, these plastics are expensive to produce, but as the technology becomes more readily available, they are likely to become much more common.

Governments and industries have taken various measures to replace nonbiodegradable materials with those that will degrade or decompose. For example, the plastic rings that bind six-packs of soda and beer are required by law to be biodegradable in Oregon and Alaska. Italy has banned all non-biodegradable plastics. The packaging industry continues to experiment with biodegradable packaging for food and fast food. Several coalitions have been formed to address biodegradable products in the oil and plastics industries, and to evaluate the benefits of recycling stable but non-biodegradable materials versus developing biodegradable substances that may be costly for both industry and the consumer. The Council for Solid Waste Solutions and the Council on Plastics and Packaging in the Environment are action groups led by industry. Environmental groups like Keep America Beautiful also advocate recycling out of concern that biodegradability tells consumers littering is acceptable, but really, toxic chemicals that may leach out of biodegradable substances can poison groundwater. Interestingly, grain growers and processors strongly favor biodegradable plastics because in some cases, corn starch is used to replace some of the plastic resin during manufacture.

Successful moves toward biodegradable substances have been made in some markets. Europeans have used degradable plastic shopping bags as mulch to cover new crops in the spring since 1975. Lawn bags that degrade would benefit the composting business because non-biodegradable bags have to be removed before yard waste can be composted. In landfills, where bagged yard waste occupies approximately 20% of the space, decomposing waste and degradable bags produce methane gas that can be recovered and sold for power generation. Marine and coastal environments can benefit from the use of biodegradable plastics in the fishing and boating industries; public outrage over the killing of dolphins, game fish, whales, and sea turtles fuels interest in these industries. In fact, the public is ultimately the driving force behind the development of biodegradable substances because litter on beaches, roadsides, and parks is an eyesore with apparent potential to harm the environment.

Hazardous wastes are by-products of human activities that could cause substantial harm to human health or the environment if improperly managed. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies liquid, solid, and gaseous discarded materials and emissions as hazardous if they are poisonous (toxic), flammable, corrosive, or chemically reactive at levels above specified safety thresholds. In the United States, the term hazardous waste generally refers to potentially dangerous or polluting chemical compounds; other potentially hazardous industrial, military, agricultural, and municipal byproducts, including biological contaminants and radioactive waste, are regulated by other government agencies than the EPA's hazardous waste division.

The handling of hazardous wastes became a major political issue in the late 1970s in the United States and other industrialized nations when a number of high-profile human health and environmental pollution crises focused public attention on the problem. Since then, many governments have greatly expanded regulation of hazardous waste management, disposal practices, and clean-up. In the United States, the EPA oversees hazardous waste regulations that attempt to prevent new cases of environmental and human contamination, as well as the so-called "Superfund" program that addresses clean-up of sites contaminated in the past.